Post by Bill Von Sennet on Aug 22, 2008 16:53:46 GMT -5
Tom Goodrick
FLYING MY JETS
« on: Dec 12th, 2007, 11:09am »
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS
In this section I'll give an introduction to flying business jets using the aircraft available for free download from my web site. They are good examples covering the range of usage for most business jets from short one day out and back trips for a few people to trans continental and inter continental travel for several people. Showing the capabilities of such a group is a challenge. I have constructed a spreadsheet that shows the significant capabilities. We'll begin by a short description of each aircraft. Then we will discuss the aspects of performance detailed in the spread sheet. Then we'll go out and fly each aircraft.
First a general note about flying jets and why you should not expect to just jump into one and go without experiencing some frustration and consternation. They do not fly like Cessna 172's. You probably know that jets go fast. But did you know that, to go fast, they must also go high? An amazing numeber of people don't know this, don't want to waste the time climbing, find it difficult to climb, and find the whole business rather troublesome so they quit doing it. There are some tricks involved that make it easier than you might think.
It also helps to work up to jets by flying twins and turboprops first. That will get you used to landing fast and to the business of going up and down. Jet flights take planning. You pick your cruise altitude based on the length of the trip. Whenever possible, you climb to an efficient altitude over 40,000 ft for the cruise. You plane you descents based generally on the 3xH rule (3 x 41k = 123 nm) putting the airplane about 1000 ft above pattern altitude within 20 nm of the airport, ready for vectors to the active. Climbs involve careful progress maintaining adequate airspeed while getting as much climb rate as possible in a series of steps. Almost all jet flying is done on autopilot from just after takeoff to just before landing because "Otto" can do it better than you can. For many jets, regulations require use of the autopilot at least above 29,000 ft. Almost all jets must be flown by two pilots, rated in the aircraft.
For most jets, the fuel weight is a very large proportion of the total weight. While taxiing only loads the gear to 1 G, landing loads the gear to 2.5 G's. To save weight in the design, landing gear is usually designed to handle the landing loads only at a reduced weight compared to takeoff. Thus you must always check the fuel load and the total weight so that the aircraft is below the MTOW (max takeoff weight) on takeoff and will be below the MLW (Max landing weight) on landing. All my jet panels include a gauge that weighs the aircraft when on the ground and then computes the weight during the flight based on measured fuel burn. It also displays the CG position which changes during the flight.
With the large variations in weight for different missions, jet pilots are required to calculate V speeds for every takeoff and landing. I have gauges on the jet panels that do this job. They display V2, the safe takeoff weight while taxiing out for takeoff, and Vref, the safe speed for final approach with full flaps. Both speeds are calculated based on actual weight of the aircraft at the moment. On takeoff you rotate 10 knots below the V2 speed and fly off at V2. On landing you should be matching Vref from the time you lower the flaps all the way.
While checking the Vref, remember to arm the spoilers so they pop when the main wheels touch the runway. They kill some lift and add some drag to help slow the plane. They are used on all landings.
I have provided checklists for all jets that contain practical piloting information. They are not as detailed as real checklists would be. But they are important for setting the aircraft for each stage of flight. For additional help you can try using ATC on your jets flights. By law, any flight above 18,000 ft must be flown using Instrument Flight Rules whether weather is a factor or not. The ATC will tell you when to climb and when to descend. The controller will give you vectors during the descent to get you set up about 20 nm out from the runway for the approach, whether using an ILS or not. I would certainly recommend using an ILS whenever possible until you get used to landing the jet. I seldom use ATC but I fly the routes in a similar fashion. I do use the checklist frequently
The FAA requires pilots to be "type rated" in each jet they fly. They can only be rated in two types during the same year. In other aircraft, you need a basic Private Pilot's license and an instructor's notation in your log book that he thinks you are competant to fly a particular airplane. For a jet "type rating," you must recieve ground school, simulator and flight time with an instructor, you must pass a written test and a flight test and you must return for recurrent training periodically. Of course, you must have an instrument rating, a commercial pilot's license and considerable flight time before being eligible to try for a type rating. The process is expensive so usually you have to convince a company that you would be sufficiently valuable as a pilot on their staff that they should invest in your type rating.
Now, for the price of a program on your home computer, you can fly anything you can get your hands on. It will be most enjoyable if you pay some attention to the serious aspects of flying each of the types of aircraft. Here's a brief description of the jets on my web site. The range and performance figures are from my table which will be shown after the discussion. In that table, the payload for "fast cruise" is based on 200 lbs per person (including carry-on) for a day trip - out and back in a day. The payload for Econ cruise is worked out using 230 lbs per person assuming a stay of at least one night. The spreadsheet finds the number of people after calculating the fuel needed, getting the net payload, dividing by the weight per person and truncating to whole people up to the max number of seats. A 45 minute reserve of fuel is included.
1. Hawker-Beechcraft Beech Premier
The Premier was a new design a few years ago intended as a step above the King Air turboprops so it would not compete with them. While it is billed as an "entry level" jet and can even be flown by a single pilot (in theory, not necessarily in practice) it has full jet speed and and a tall cabin. It looks very awkward and very tall. Many of these bizjets look very small if you ever walk up to one on the ramp. You can see over the top of the Learjets and the Hawker 400. Walk up to the door of a Premier and you can barely see over the door sill! You have to open the door and let the stairs lower automatically in order to climb aboard. The reason for the strange appearance is that they lay the fuselage on top of the wing and its structural elements. Then they have a dropped aisle in the floor that gives 5 feet 5 inches of headroom. They fly just like any jet except that you must be doubly careful about speed on final because all you have is wheel brakes to stop you. There is no reverse thrust. But this seems to work all right, even on 3,000 ft runways. I just feel more comfortable using the Learjet 31 on such short runways because it does have reverse thrust in addition to the spoilers and wheel brakes. It climbs well to altitude and moves along quite well at 460 KTAS in fast cruise. As with most jets, cruise speed is limited by Mach so it won't improve with altitude. For this comparison it was demonstrated at 40,000 ft. Only fuel burn would improve with altitude. It can carry 4 people 1000 nm in 130 min. Slowing to 400 KTAS it can carry 5 people 1200 nm in 180 min. (All range fingures allow 45 minute reserve at cruise.) Technically, the Premier is the Premier 1 as they named it when first introduced as though they saw the 2 coming along right after it. But in a dozen years it was only improved enough to get an "A" after the 1. So I leave offf the 1 and the A.
2. Bombardier Learjet 31A
The Learjet 31A is another "entry level" jet. But it sits low to the ground on short gear like all Learjets and has a small cabin with only 4 feet 5 inches of headroom in the cabin. It has a cabin aisle 1 foot lower but can carry two more people with a little more speed. It has reverse thrust so it is a little easier to land on 3,000 ft runways than the Premier. It can carry 8 people 1200 nm at fast cruise in the time it takes the Premier to carry 6 people 1000 nm. It will carry 5 people 1800 nm in just under 4 hours. Its payload capacity for long-range hauls is better than the Learjet 45.
3. Bombardier Learjet 45
The Learjet 45 carries 8 people in a roomy double club arrangement while 8 people are fit tightly, all facing forward in the 31A. It can carry those 8 people 1,000 nm in just 2 minutes longer than it takes the 31A (130 min). The default FD had some flaws such as not being able to turn around (180 degrees) on autopilot at cruise without losing 20,000 ft. But with the slight improvements that come with this aircraft, it flies and handles nicely.
{Continued below}
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #1 on: Dec 12th, 2007, 11:10am »
4. Bombardier Learjet 60
This is the big, long-range version of the Learjet. Aisle height is 5 feet 8 inches. Max range with all 6 comfy seats filled is 2800 nm. While the Hawker 800 was designed in England to go to America, the Learjet 60 was designed in America to go to England. The Learjet leaves two people behind but can go 200 nm farther than the Hawker. If they both take their full cabin loads 2600 nm, the Hawker gets there 12 minutes sooner. At fast cruise it will take those 6 people 1400 nm in just under 3 hours. It lands a little faster than the other Learjets.
5. Hawker-Beechcraft Hawker 400
This little rascal does a lot of good work. According to FlightAware, several companies keep this little jet going places every day. I will show later a schedule for one of thee that goes across the US (with one fuel stop) and services several West Coast cities. Those pilots are busy. This is a small plane. It almost looks like a toy sitting on the ramp. Indeed at one airshow I attended, there were a Hawker 400 and a battery-driven toy a man could ride around the parking area parked in the same area. The 400 looked only about twice as big. At 5' 9" I could look down on the roof of the 400. But it carries its 7 people 1200 nm at 438 nm in 164 min. That gets a lot of people easily to where they want to go. The Learjet 31A could carry another person and get there 12 minutes sooner. But it wouldn't be as cute. Strangely, though the 400 came from Japan and the 800 came from England, they both carry the banner of Hawker-Beechcraft now. When compared to its Beech sibling, the Premier, the 400 fill all 7 seats for 1200 nm at fast cruise while the Premier has to leave 5 people behind. Even at economy cruise, the Premier could only carry 5 people 1200 nm.
6. Hawker-Beechcraft Hawker 800
The Hawker started life as the 125 with a British accent. All the engineering has been done by the British engineers at BAE. It was designed from the start to carry at least 8 businessmen with seat measurements taken from a popular men's club, at least that is the scuttlebutt. By the time these folks get to the meeting (across the pond), they have their strategy well-planned. On the return flight they have a nice celebration of victory. Its range with those 8 businessmen is 2600 nm, taking 6 hours and 15 minutes. A friend who used to fly them says the Hawker was a very nice plane to fly. I made sure the FD supports that opinion.
7. IAI Westwind II or Model 1124
This is derived from one of the first biz jets - the Jet Commander from the folks who made the Aero Commander. Its design was bought by the Israelis who made it a successful inter continental jet. With only a few changes, its cabin was used with the wings lowered as the IAI Astra which is now one of the Gulstream jets. Its cabin is a little small. (I am not sure about the cabin height.) But the layout is nice with a divan forward of a 4-person club arrangement. It set the style for later jets. It is still a good jet with low initial cost for long range trips. Though it started life without thrust reversers, they were added for this final Westwind model. That is good because it has one of the highest landing speeds of this set of jets. My average landing speed was 125.6 KIAS after three trials which is faster than the Hawker 800 (at 123.1 KIAS) and the Learjet 60 (at 121.9 KIAS). It can go 3,000 nm with all 7 seats filled. It is considered a slow aircraft at only 409 KTAS, taking 7 hours for the 3,000 nm flight. But the faster Falcon 50 at 430 KTAS only saves 20 minutes on that trip.
8. Dassault Falcon 50
This is a three-engine jet. The jets previously discussed are all twin engine jets. In the case just discussed, for those 7 hours flying 3000 nm, the passengers will arrive in better shape than in the Westwind because they most will be able to walk around in the aisle under that 5 foot 10 inch headroom. This big 9-passenger airplane is a gentle giant to fly and can even go into and out of short runways. Its stall speed in landing configuration is only 77 KIAS giving it a Vref of 100 KIAS on final. My average landing speed was only 90 KIAS, the lowest of the bunch. its max range is 3600 nm which it can do with all its 9 seats filled. It may use more fuel on short trips. One might think the 3-engine Falcon would take more fuel to do the same job as the twin engine Hawker. Certain aviation writers are fond of that kind of simple-minded arithmetic. But jet engines can be chosen based on pounds fuel used per pounds of thrust and thrust relates to weight according to the lift/drag ratio. Thus for aerodynamically-efficient designs, the number of engines need not be related to the fuel used. In this case, for 1400 nm at fast cruise, the Falcon 50 uses only 6% more fuel than the Hawker while carrying 12% more payload (one more person). But at best economy, the Hawker gets back over 2600 nm by saving 16% fuel compared to the Falcon. The Falcon still carries 12% more payload with a little more headroom and elbow room.
9. Lockheed JetStar III
This is not a model of real plane. It is a model of what could be a real plane. The JetStar II was the last version of the venerable JetStar made by Lockheed to compete for a contract to build a plane for hauling Air Force generals around. The II had more powerful engines but they were still turbojet engines that burned a lot of fuel and would be banned from most airports today for sound level violations. I looked at the modern fanjet engines made by Pratt&Whitney of Canada and found one that had the same thrust and the same outer dimensions as the turbojets used in the JetStar II. The new engines should be interchangeable with those older models and yet would use about half as much fuel per pound of thrust. This turns the II into the III with a very nice range. This makes the elderly JetStar a very nice long-range aircraft that competes well with most of thesw "younger" jets. It can't be too bad. Elvis had one! John Wayne had one in the movie about Red Adair and his oil fire fighters. It has a fast approach speed but if you pull the throttles back to idle coming over the numbers, it settles nicely. While the Vref at 140 KIAS was the highest of the bunch, my average landing speed was 117, less than the Westwind, both Hawkers and the Learjet 60. The average vertical speed on landing was -78 fpm, the lowest of all. She's a real sweetheart! With a max landing weight of 38,640 lbs, she is almost "heavy iron!"
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #2 on: Dec 12th, 2007, 11:26am » Here are sections of the spreadsheet showing specs.
Here's an explanation of the column headings:
MTOW is max takeoff weight (lbs)
EW is empty weight.
+crew means 400 lbs added to EW for crew.
Seats shows normal or common number of seats (Many aircraft can be purchased with a variety of accomodations.)
Cab Ht Cabin height in aisle
Fuel gallons
Fuel pounds
Landing weight or MLW (lbs)
Average landing speeds over three trials. (KIAS and FPM)
Fast Cruise Data
Thr% is percent throttle setting
F Flow (pph)
KTAS
NMPG Nautical miles per gallon is calculated by dividing the speed by the fuel flow (knots per gph).
Econ Cruise Data for long range.
Range Data (either fast or economy cruise)
#pax (passengers)
FUEL total fuel on tkeoff
TIME for flight calculated in minutes.
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #3 on: Dec 12th, 2007, 3:39pm »
Let's look at the checklist for the Jetstar III as an example. Then I'll relate the control inputs I used on a typical climb. While max cruise altitude is 43,000 ft, if you takeoff at MTOW, you must level at 35,000 ft for a while to burn fuel before climbing higher. This is fairly typical of jets. Going up hill they run out of poop at about 35,000 ft and require level flight for a while before continuing the climb.
CHECKLIST FOR JETSTAR III
TAKEOFF
0=Check all instruments. Turn on Strobes.
1=Set flaps at 20 degrees. Set trim at 12 degrees.
2=Rotate at V2-10; takeoff at V2.
3=Retract gear on positive climb rate.
4=At 180 knots, retract flaps and trim for 240 KIAS climb at 4000fpm. Reduce thrust.
5=For level flight at low altitude, use 400 pph/e.
CLIMB
0=Turn to climb heading before engaging autopilot.
1=Set Cruise Alt on AP. Check AP ON HDG and ALT mode.
2=Above 10000 ft set full thrust and 2000 fpm. At 320 KIAS set 4000 fpm.
3=As speed drops to 280 KIAS, set climb rate to 3000 fpm.
4=As speed drops to 260 KIAS, set climb rate to 2000 fpm.
5=Maintain 220 KIAS by reducing climb rate until cruising altitude is reached.
6=At full TOW, climb to 35k-37k first.
CRUISE
0=Establish level flight at 35k to 43kft. At max TOW, cruise at 35k-37k for at least 30 min.
1=Set thrust to maintain fuel flow of 400-450 pph/e.
2=For range of over 5000 NM, use 43kft and 400 pph/e for M.82.
3=Max airspeed in turbulance is 260 KIAS.
4=Autopilot can be used during turns though a slight pitch oscillation may occur.
DESCENT
0=Reduce power and trim to maintain -2000 fpm.
1=Best airspeed 240 KIAS. Keep airspeed below 330 KIAS (VMO).
2=Max airspeed in turbulance is 260 KIAS. Use -1500 fpm descent.
3=Spoilers may be deployed below 260 KIAS. Use -2500 fpm with spoilers.
APPROACH
0=In level flight near airport, set 400 pph/e.
1=Gear can be extended below 220 KIAS.
2=Extend flaps below 200 KIAS 1 notch.
3=Make sure main weight is below 38640 lb before landing.
LANDING
0=At 5 nm set flaps 20 and check gear down.
1=Trim for 155 KIAS. Use power for glide slope.
2=Slow to Vref with full flaps on short final.
3=Cut power just at flare. Hold attitude to contact.
4=Lower nose gently and apply reverse thrust.
5=Use wheel braking immediately. At 45 knots, cut reverse thrust.
Note that the fuel flow per engine (such as 400 pph) is a common indicator of the power level desired.
One gauge I have on all jets is a cabin altitude gauge. The cabin pressure is related to the bleed air pressure from the engine which is shown on one of the engine gauges. When making power reductions for descents, keep an eye open for any jumps in cabin altitude. Try to keep the cabin altitude below 10,000 ft. The spoilers can be used to steepen the descent.
I started a flight at the weight and loading fora long 3400 nm flight according to the table shown above. I started from Huntsville, AL, at noon (11:57 am) in standard conditions, took off to the south (typical) and turned to climb on a heading of 30 degrees. The Cg was at 29.77%, the weight was 43,700 lbs and for that weight the takeoff speed (V2) was 154 KIAS. I started the roll with 100% throttle. It seemed to take a while. I started the rotation at 144 KIAS and was off the ground at 154 KIAS in a shallow climb. Gear came up quickly and the 20 degrees of flaps came up at 500 ft. By 2000 ft I was turning steeply (45 degree bank) to avoid a restricted airspace where they shoot rockets and mortars. On course at 9,000 ft the autopilot was turned on in ALT nd HDG modes with throttle increased to 90% at 10,000 ft. 4000 fpm was set on the AP. At 15,000 ft climb rate was reduced to 3,000 fpm and shortly after that with airspeed at 180 KIAS, climb rate was reduced to 1000 fpm. This was held through 17,000 ft where airspeed had increased to 234 KIAS. The climb was increased to 2500 fpm. At 18000 ft airspeed was up to 274 KIAS. At 20,000 ft airspeed was 275 KIAS, climb rate was still 2500 fpm and throttle was still at 90%. At 28,000 ft airspeed was down to 249 KIAS and rate of climb was set to 2000 fpm. At 33,000 ft the airspeed was 200 KIAS and climb was reset to 1500 fpm. With the airspeed dropping as low as 180 KIAS, I levelled at 35,000 ft for a while but left the throttles at 90%. When the airspeed reached 270 KIAS, I resummed climbing at 1500 fpm. At 39,000 ft the airspeed was down to 222 KIAS. Climb rate was reduced to 1000 fpm. At 12:20 we reached 41,000 ft, 23 minutes after takeoff and still showing 200 KIAS. 8 minutes later we were in steady cruise with throttle reduced to 71%. At 13:35 EST we reduced throttle to 70%. We were seeing 440 KTAS with enough fuel to go 3238 nm from that point which was just north of Lexington, KY (KLEX), 229 nm from KHSV where we departed. So the total range would be 3467 nm. That does not leave the 45 minute reserve that was in the calculation. It shows you cannot trust simple arithmetic when flying jets. All the time climbing at 90% throttle took a toll on the fuel. In this case we could have taken off with 800 additional pounds of fuel. That would certainly be wise on a long trip like this.
All my jet panels (as well as most other panels) have a digital gauge showing the flight time remaining at current power and altitude. This is particularly useful on long jet trips, particularly when starting to cross an ocean. When you get settled in steady cruise, you can check the time remaining on the GPS against the time shown by this gauge. If the gauge shows extra time, you are in good shape. If not, watch carefully until a point is reached where you must divert to a landing for fuel. Use extra causion when flying in Real Weather because the winds at cruise altitude can change drastically when crossing oceans. Take all the extra fuel you can carry.
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #4 on: Dec 13th, 2007, 2:41pm »
Some people wonder where to fly small jets. Here is a real schedule flown by a Beech (Hawker) 400.
SCHEDULE OF USAGE FOR BEECH 400 JET
N101AR NOV 28 TO DEC 9 2007
DATE_____DEPART_____ARRIVE_____TOFF________LAND TIMES
NOV 28___PHX_________LFT________10:11am MT___1:35pm CT LFT is Lafeyette, Louisiana
_________LFT__________PBI_________2:26pm CT____5:07pm ET Phoenix to Palm Beach, Florida
NOV 30___PBI__________SAT________1:01 pm ET____2:39pm CT SAT is San Antonio, Texas
_________SAT__________PHX________3:43pm CT____4:48 pm MT Return to Phoenix, Arizona
DEC 1____PHX_________SDL_________9:41am MT____9:45 am MT position at Scottsdale, AZ
_________SDL__________SNA_________11:05 am MT__11:16am PT to John Wayne, Santa Ana, California
_________SNA__________SDL_________6:28pm PT____8:14pm MT back to Scottsdale, AZ
_________SDL__________PHX_________8:35pm MT____8:39pm MT back to Phoenix
DEC 2___PHX__________SMO_________11:35am MT___11:45am MT to Santa Monica, CA
________SMO__________LAS__________1:34 pm PT____2:22pm PT to Las Vegas, Nevada
________LAS___________PHX_________Huh_____VFR return to Phoenix
DEC 3___PHX__________SDL__________5:50 am MT______position at Scottsdale
_________SDL__________AEG__________6:56am MT_____7:38am MT to Double Eagle at Albuquerque, NM
_________AEG__________IAH_________9:09am MT_____11:43am CT to Houston, TX
_________IAH___________DAL_________5:56pm CT_____6:45pm CT to Dallas, TX
DEC 5___DAL___________SDL_________11:34am CT____12:37pm MT to Scottsdale, AZ
________SDL___________PHX________1:09pm MT_____1:13pm MT to Phoenix
DEC 8___PHX__________TUS________11:32am MT_____11:54an MT to Tuscon, AZ
________TUS__________RNO________1:38pm MT______ 2:14pm PT to Reno/Tahoe Nevada
________RNO_________LAS_________2:41pm PT______4:43pm PT to Las Vegas, NV
DEC 9___LAS_________SMO________3:24pm PT______4:09pm PT to Santa Monica, CA
________SMO________PHX_________4:53pm PT______7:06pm MT back to Phoenix
The aircraft is owned by A&R Aircraft, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Clearly, Phoenix is the home base for the aircraft and crews. There may be two sets of crew.
Below is a schedule for a Falcon 50.
It is N2FQ based at Napa, California. As you can see it ranges from Napa to Mexico, the Caribbean, and Hawaii.
08-Jun-2006 FA50/ Kahului (PHOG) Honolulu Int'l (PHNL) 03:30PM HST 03:49PM HST 0:19
08-Jun-2006 FA50/ Honolulu Int'l (PHNL) Kahului (PHOG) 11:15AM HST 11:33AM HST 0:18
07-Jun-2006 FA50/Q Napa Co (KAPC) Honolulu Int'l (PHNL) 09:57AM PDT 11:30AM HST 4:33
23-May-2006 FA50/Q Los Angeles Int'l (KLAX) Napa Co (KAPC) 12:35PM PDT 01:23PM PDT 0:48
23-May-2006 FA50/U Licenciado Adolfo Lopez Mateos Int'l (MMTO) Los Angeles Int'l (KLAX) 06:02PM GMT 11:39AM PDT n/a
20-May-2006 FA50/G Napa Co (KAPC) Los Cabos Int'l (MMSD) 05:29AM PDT result unknown (?) n/a
13-May-2006 DA50/L Miami Int'l (KMIA) Napa Co (KAPC) 03:37PM EDT 06:36PM PDT 5:59
13-May-2006 FA50/Q Hewanorra Int'l (TLPL) Miami Int'l (KMIA) 03:03PM GMT 02:22PM EDT n/a
06-May-2006 FA50/Q Palm Beach Int'l (KPBI) E T Joshua (TVSV) 08:53AM EDT result unknown (?) n/a
05-May-2006 FA50/Q Napa Co (KAPC) Palm Beach Int'l (KPBI) 08:38AM PDT 04:23PM EDT 4:45
03-May-2006 FA50/Q Yuma Mcas Yuma Int'l (KYUM) Napa Co (KAPC) 04:09PM MST 05:27PM PDT 1:18
02-May-2006 DA50/Q Napa Co (KAPC) Licenciado Adolfo Lopez Mateos Int'l (MMTO) 08:02AM PDT result unknown (?) n/a
22-Apr-2006 FA50/H Yuma Mcas Yuma Int'l (KYUM) Napa Co (KAPC) 02:44PM MST 04:01PM PDT 1:17
It appears to show a change in policy regarding international flights to Mexico. The crew was used to flying direct from Napa to various cities in Mexico. They would simply clear customs at both ends. Then they had to change their flight plane to make a stop at Yuma both on exit from, and entrance to, the US.
« Last Edit: Dec 13th, 2007, 2:54pm by Tom Goodrick »
FLYING MY JETS
« on: Dec 12th, 2007, 11:09am »
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS
In this section I'll give an introduction to flying business jets using the aircraft available for free download from my web site. They are good examples covering the range of usage for most business jets from short one day out and back trips for a few people to trans continental and inter continental travel for several people. Showing the capabilities of such a group is a challenge. I have constructed a spreadsheet that shows the significant capabilities. We'll begin by a short description of each aircraft. Then we will discuss the aspects of performance detailed in the spread sheet. Then we'll go out and fly each aircraft.
First a general note about flying jets and why you should not expect to just jump into one and go without experiencing some frustration and consternation. They do not fly like Cessna 172's. You probably know that jets go fast. But did you know that, to go fast, they must also go high? An amazing numeber of people don't know this, don't want to waste the time climbing, find it difficult to climb, and find the whole business rather troublesome so they quit doing it. There are some tricks involved that make it easier than you might think.
It also helps to work up to jets by flying twins and turboprops first. That will get you used to landing fast and to the business of going up and down. Jet flights take planning. You pick your cruise altitude based on the length of the trip. Whenever possible, you climb to an efficient altitude over 40,000 ft for the cruise. You plane you descents based generally on the 3xH rule (3 x 41k = 123 nm) putting the airplane about 1000 ft above pattern altitude within 20 nm of the airport, ready for vectors to the active. Climbs involve careful progress maintaining adequate airspeed while getting as much climb rate as possible in a series of steps. Almost all jet flying is done on autopilot from just after takeoff to just before landing because "Otto" can do it better than you can. For many jets, regulations require use of the autopilot at least above 29,000 ft. Almost all jets must be flown by two pilots, rated in the aircraft.
For most jets, the fuel weight is a very large proportion of the total weight. While taxiing only loads the gear to 1 G, landing loads the gear to 2.5 G's. To save weight in the design, landing gear is usually designed to handle the landing loads only at a reduced weight compared to takeoff. Thus you must always check the fuel load and the total weight so that the aircraft is below the MTOW (max takeoff weight) on takeoff and will be below the MLW (Max landing weight) on landing. All my jet panels include a gauge that weighs the aircraft when on the ground and then computes the weight during the flight based on measured fuel burn. It also displays the CG position which changes during the flight.
With the large variations in weight for different missions, jet pilots are required to calculate V speeds for every takeoff and landing. I have gauges on the jet panels that do this job. They display V2, the safe takeoff weight while taxiing out for takeoff, and Vref, the safe speed for final approach with full flaps. Both speeds are calculated based on actual weight of the aircraft at the moment. On takeoff you rotate 10 knots below the V2 speed and fly off at V2. On landing you should be matching Vref from the time you lower the flaps all the way.
While checking the Vref, remember to arm the spoilers so they pop when the main wheels touch the runway. They kill some lift and add some drag to help slow the plane. They are used on all landings.
I have provided checklists for all jets that contain practical piloting information. They are not as detailed as real checklists would be. But they are important for setting the aircraft for each stage of flight. For additional help you can try using ATC on your jets flights. By law, any flight above 18,000 ft must be flown using Instrument Flight Rules whether weather is a factor or not. The ATC will tell you when to climb and when to descend. The controller will give you vectors during the descent to get you set up about 20 nm out from the runway for the approach, whether using an ILS or not. I would certainly recommend using an ILS whenever possible until you get used to landing the jet. I seldom use ATC but I fly the routes in a similar fashion. I do use the checklist frequently
The FAA requires pilots to be "type rated" in each jet they fly. They can only be rated in two types during the same year. In other aircraft, you need a basic Private Pilot's license and an instructor's notation in your log book that he thinks you are competant to fly a particular airplane. For a jet "type rating," you must recieve ground school, simulator and flight time with an instructor, you must pass a written test and a flight test and you must return for recurrent training periodically. Of course, you must have an instrument rating, a commercial pilot's license and considerable flight time before being eligible to try for a type rating. The process is expensive so usually you have to convince a company that you would be sufficiently valuable as a pilot on their staff that they should invest in your type rating.
Now, for the price of a program on your home computer, you can fly anything you can get your hands on. It will be most enjoyable if you pay some attention to the serious aspects of flying each of the types of aircraft. Here's a brief description of the jets on my web site. The range and performance figures are from my table which will be shown after the discussion. In that table, the payload for "fast cruise" is based on 200 lbs per person (including carry-on) for a day trip - out and back in a day. The payload for Econ cruise is worked out using 230 lbs per person assuming a stay of at least one night. The spreadsheet finds the number of people after calculating the fuel needed, getting the net payload, dividing by the weight per person and truncating to whole people up to the max number of seats. A 45 minute reserve of fuel is included.
1. Hawker-Beechcraft Beech Premier
The Premier was a new design a few years ago intended as a step above the King Air turboprops so it would not compete with them. While it is billed as an "entry level" jet and can even be flown by a single pilot (in theory, not necessarily in practice) it has full jet speed and and a tall cabin. It looks very awkward and very tall. Many of these bizjets look very small if you ever walk up to one on the ramp. You can see over the top of the Learjets and the Hawker 400. Walk up to the door of a Premier and you can barely see over the door sill! You have to open the door and let the stairs lower automatically in order to climb aboard. The reason for the strange appearance is that they lay the fuselage on top of the wing and its structural elements. Then they have a dropped aisle in the floor that gives 5 feet 5 inches of headroom. They fly just like any jet except that you must be doubly careful about speed on final because all you have is wheel brakes to stop you. There is no reverse thrust. But this seems to work all right, even on 3,000 ft runways. I just feel more comfortable using the Learjet 31 on such short runways because it does have reverse thrust in addition to the spoilers and wheel brakes. It climbs well to altitude and moves along quite well at 460 KTAS in fast cruise. As with most jets, cruise speed is limited by Mach so it won't improve with altitude. For this comparison it was demonstrated at 40,000 ft. Only fuel burn would improve with altitude. It can carry 4 people 1000 nm in 130 min. Slowing to 400 KTAS it can carry 5 people 1200 nm in 180 min. (All range fingures allow 45 minute reserve at cruise.) Technically, the Premier is the Premier 1 as they named it when first introduced as though they saw the 2 coming along right after it. But in a dozen years it was only improved enough to get an "A" after the 1. So I leave offf the 1 and the A.
2. Bombardier Learjet 31A
The Learjet 31A is another "entry level" jet. But it sits low to the ground on short gear like all Learjets and has a small cabin with only 4 feet 5 inches of headroom in the cabin. It has a cabin aisle 1 foot lower but can carry two more people with a little more speed. It has reverse thrust so it is a little easier to land on 3,000 ft runways than the Premier. It can carry 8 people 1200 nm at fast cruise in the time it takes the Premier to carry 6 people 1000 nm. It will carry 5 people 1800 nm in just under 4 hours. Its payload capacity for long-range hauls is better than the Learjet 45.
3. Bombardier Learjet 45
The Learjet 45 carries 8 people in a roomy double club arrangement while 8 people are fit tightly, all facing forward in the 31A. It can carry those 8 people 1,000 nm in just 2 minutes longer than it takes the 31A (130 min). The default FD had some flaws such as not being able to turn around (180 degrees) on autopilot at cruise without losing 20,000 ft. But with the slight improvements that come with this aircraft, it flies and handles nicely.
{Continued below}
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #1 on: Dec 12th, 2007, 11:10am »
4. Bombardier Learjet 60
This is the big, long-range version of the Learjet. Aisle height is 5 feet 8 inches. Max range with all 6 comfy seats filled is 2800 nm. While the Hawker 800 was designed in England to go to America, the Learjet 60 was designed in America to go to England. The Learjet leaves two people behind but can go 200 nm farther than the Hawker. If they both take their full cabin loads 2600 nm, the Hawker gets there 12 minutes sooner. At fast cruise it will take those 6 people 1400 nm in just under 3 hours. It lands a little faster than the other Learjets.
5. Hawker-Beechcraft Hawker 400
This little rascal does a lot of good work. According to FlightAware, several companies keep this little jet going places every day. I will show later a schedule for one of thee that goes across the US (with one fuel stop) and services several West Coast cities. Those pilots are busy. This is a small plane. It almost looks like a toy sitting on the ramp. Indeed at one airshow I attended, there were a Hawker 400 and a battery-driven toy a man could ride around the parking area parked in the same area. The 400 looked only about twice as big. At 5' 9" I could look down on the roof of the 400. But it carries its 7 people 1200 nm at 438 nm in 164 min. That gets a lot of people easily to where they want to go. The Learjet 31A could carry another person and get there 12 minutes sooner. But it wouldn't be as cute. Strangely, though the 400 came from Japan and the 800 came from England, they both carry the banner of Hawker-Beechcraft now. When compared to its Beech sibling, the Premier, the 400 fill all 7 seats for 1200 nm at fast cruise while the Premier has to leave 5 people behind. Even at economy cruise, the Premier could only carry 5 people 1200 nm.
6. Hawker-Beechcraft Hawker 800
The Hawker started life as the 125 with a British accent. All the engineering has been done by the British engineers at BAE. It was designed from the start to carry at least 8 businessmen with seat measurements taken from a popular men's club, at least that is the scuttlebutt. By the time these folks get to the meeting (across the pond), they have their strategy well-planned. On the return flight they have a nice celebration of victory. Its range with those 8 businessmen is 2600 nm, taking 6 hours and 15 minutes. A friend who used to fly them says the Hawker was a very nice plane to fly. I made sure the FD supports that opinion.
7. IAI Westwind II or Model 1124
This is derived from one of the first biz jets - the Jet Commander from the folks who made the Aero Commander. Its design was bought by the Israelis who made it a successful inter continental jet. With only a few changes, its cabin was used with the wings lowered as the IAI Astra which is now one of the Gulstream jets. Its cabin is a little small. (I am not sure about the cabin height.) But the layout is nice with a divan forward of a 4-person club arrangement. It set the style for later jets. It is still a good jet with low initial cost for long range trips. Though it started life without thrust reversers, they were added for this final Westwind model. That is good because it has one of the highest landing speeds of this set of jets. My average landing speed was 125.6 KIAS after three trials which is faster than the Hawker 800 (at 123.1 KIAS) and the Learjet 60 (at 121.9 KIAS). It can go 3,000 nm with all 7 seats filled. It is considered a slow aircraft at only 409 KTAS, taking 7 hours for the 3,000 nm flight. But the faster Falcon 50 at 430 KTAS only saves 20 minutes on that trip.
8. Dassault Falcon 50
This is a three-engine jet. The jets previously discussed are all twin engine jets. In the case just discussed, for those 7 hours flying 3000 nm, the passengers will arrive in better shape than in the Westwind because they most will be able to walk around in the aisle under that 5 foot 10 inch headroom. This big 9-passenger airplane is a gentle giant to fly and can even go into and out of short runways. Its stall speed in landing configuration is only 77 KIAS giving it a Vref of 100 KIAS on final. My average landing speed was only 90 KIAS, the lowest of the bunch. its max range is 3600 nm which it can do with all its 9 seats filled. It may use more fuel on short trips. One might think the 3-engine Falcon would take more fuel to do the same job as the twin engine Hawker. Certain aviation writers are fond of that kind of simple-minded arithmetic. But jet engines can be chosen based on pounds fuel used per pounds of thrust and thrust relates to weight according to the lift/drag ratio. Thus for aerodynamically-efficient designs, the number of engines need not be related to the fuel used. In this case, for 1400 nm at fast cruise, the Falcon 50 uses only 6% more fuel than the Hawker while carrying 12% more payload (one more person). But at best economy, the Hawker gets back over 2600 nm by saving 16% fuel compared to the Falcon. The Falcon still carries 12% more payload with a little more headroom and elbow room.
9. Lockheed JetStar III
This is not a model of real plane. It is a model of what could be a real plane. The JetStar II was the last version of the venerable JetStar made by Lockheed to compete for a contract to build a plane for hauling Air Force generals around. The II had more powerful engines but they were still turbojet engines that burned a lot of fuel and would be banned from most airports today for sound level violations. I looked at the modern fanjet engines made by Pratt&Whitney of Canada and found one that had the same thrust and the same outer dimensions as the turbojets used in the JetStar II. The new engines should be interchangeable with those older models and yet would use about half as much fuel per pound of thrust. This turns the II into the III with a very nice range. This makes the elderly JetStar a very nice long-range aircraft that competes well with most of thesw "younger" jets. It can't be too bad. Elvis had one! John Wayne had one in the movie about Red Adair and his oil fire fighters. It has a fast approach speed but if you pull the throttles back to idle coming over the numbers, it settles nicely. While the Vref at 140 KIAS was the highest of the bunch, my average landing speed was 117, less than the Westwind, both Hawkers and the Learjet 60. The average vertical speed on landing was -78 fpm, the lowest of all. She's a real sweetheart! With a max landing weight of 38,640 lbs, she is almost "heavy iron!"
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #2 on: Dec 12th, 2007, 11:26am » Here are sections of the spreadsheet showing specs.
Here's an explanation of the column headings:
MTOW is max takeoff weight (lbs)
EW is empty weight.
+crew means 400 lbs added to EW for crew.
Seats shows normal or common number of seats (Many aircraft can be purchased with a variety of accomodations.)
Cab Ht Cabin height in aisle
Fuel gallons
Fuel pounds
Landing weight or MLW (lbs)
Average landing speeds over three trials. (KIAS and FPM)
Fast Cruise Data
Thr% is percent throttle setting
F Flow (pph)
KTAS
NMPG Nautical miles per gallon is calculated by dividing the speed by the fuel flow (knots per gph).
Econ Cruise Data for long range.
Range Data (either fast or economy cruise)
#pax (passengers)
FUEL total fuel on tkeoff
TIME for flight calculated in minutes.
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #3 on: Dec 12th, 2007, 3:39pm »
Let's look at the checklist for the Jetstar III as an example. Then I'll relate the control inputs I used on a typical climb. While max cruise altitude is 43,000 ft, if you takeoff at MTOW, you must level at 35,000 ft for a while to burn fuel before climbing higher. This is fairly typical of jets. Going up hill they run out of poop at about 35,000 ft and require level flight for a while before continuing the climb.
CHECKLIST FOR JETSTAR III
TAKEOFF
0=Check all instruments. Turn on Strobes.
1=Set flaps at 20 degrees. Set trim at 12 degrees.
2=Rotate at V2-10; takeoff at V2.
3=Retract gear on positive climb rate.
4=At 180 knots, retract flaps and trim for 240 KIAS climb at 4000fpm. Reduce thrust.
5=For level flight at low altitude, use 400 pph/e.
CLIMB
0=Turn to climb heading before engaging autopilot.
1=Set Cruise Alt on AP. Check AP ON HDG and ALT mode.
2=Above 10000 ft set full thrust and 2000 fpm. At 320 KIAS set 4000 fpm.
3=As speed drops to 280 KIAS, set climb rate to 3000 fpm.
4=As speed drops to 260 KIAS, set climb rate to 2000 fpm.
5=Maintain 220 KIAS by reducing climb rate until cruising altitude is reached.
6=At full TOW, climb to 35k-37k first.
CRUISE
0=Establish level flight at 35k to 43kft. At max TOW, cruise at 35k-37k for at least 30 min.
1=Set thrust to maintain fuel flow of 400-450 pph/e.
2=For range of over 5000 NM, use 43kft and 400 pph/e for M.82.
3=Max airspeed in turbulance is 260 KIAS.
4=Autopilot can be used during turns though a slight pitch oscillation may occur.
DESCENT
0=Reduce power and trim to maintain -2000 fpm.
1=Best airspeed 240 KIAS. Keep airspeed below 330 KIAS (VMO).
2=Max airspeed in turbulance is 260 KIAS. Use -1500 fpm descent.
3=Spoilers may be deployed below 260 KIAS. Use -2500 fpm with spoilers.
APPROACH
0=In level flight near airport, set 400 pph/e.
1=Gear can be extended below 220 KIAS.
2=Extend flaps below 200 KIAS 1 notch.
3=Make sure main weight is below 38640 lb before landing.
LANDING
0=At 5 nm set flaps 20 and check gear down.
1=Trim for 155 KIAS. Use power for glide slope.
2=Slow to Vref with full flaps on short final.
3=Cut power just at flare. Hold attitude to contact.
4=Lower nose gently and apply reverse thrust.
5=Use wheel braking immediately. At 45 knots, cut reverse thrust.
Note that the fuel flow per engine (such as 400 pph) is a common indicator of the power level desired.
One gauge I have on all jets is a cabin altitude gauge. The cabin pressure is related to the bleed air pressure from the engine which is shown on one of the engine gauges. When making power reductions for descents, keep an eye open for any jumps in cabin altitude. Try to keep the cabin altitude below 10,000 ft. The spoilers can be used to steepen the descent.
I started a flight at the weight and loading fora long 3400 nm flight according to the table shown above. I started from Huntsville, AL, at noon (11:57 am) in standard conditions, took off to the south (typical) and turned to climb on a heading of 30 degrees. The Cg was at 29.77%, the weight was 43,700 lbs and for that weight the takeoff speed (V2) was 154 KIAS. I started the roll with 100% throttle. It seemed to take a while. I started the rotation at 144 KIAS and was off the ground at 154 KIAS in a shallow climb. Gear came up quickly and the 20 degrees of flaps came up at 500 ft. By 2000 ft I was turning steeply (45 degree bank) to avoid a restricted airspace where they shoot rockets and mortars. On course at 9,000 ft the autopilot was turned on in ALT nd HDG modes with throttle increased to 90% at 10,000 ft. 4000 fpm was set on the AP. At 15,000 ft climb rate was reduced to 3,000 fpm and shortly after that with airspeed at 180 KIAS, climb rate was reduced to 1000 fpm. This was held through 17,000 ft where airspeed had increased to 234 KIAS. The climb was increased to 2500 fpm. At 18000 ft airspeed was up to 274 KIAS. At 20,000 ft airspeed was 275 KIAS, climb rate was still 2500 fpm and throttle was still at 90%. At 28,000 ft airspeed was down to 249 KIAS and rate of climb was set to 2000 fpm. At 33,000 ft the airspeed was 200 KIAS and climb was reset to 1500 fpm. With the airspeed dropping as low as 180 KIAS, I levelled at 35,000 ft for a while but left the throttles at 90%. When the airspeed reached 270 KIAS, I resummed climbing at 1500 fpm. At 39,000 ft the airspeed was down to 222 KIAS. Climb rate was reduced to 1000 fpm. At 12:20 we reached 41,000 ft, 23 minutes after takeoff and still showing 200 KIAS. 8 minutes later we were in steady cruise with throttle reduced to 71%. At 13:35 EST we reduced throttle to 70%. We were seeing 440 KTAS with enough fuel to go 3238 nm from that point which was just north of Lexington, KY (KLEX), 229 nm from KHSV where we departed. So the total range would be 3467 nm. That does not leave the 45 minute reserve that was in the calculation. It shows you cannot trust simple arithmetic when flying jets. All the time climbing at 90% throttle took a toll on the fuel. In this case we could have taken off with 800 additional pounds of fuel. That would certainly be wise on a long trip like this.
All my jet panels (as well as most other panels) have a digital gauge showing the flight time remaining at current power and altitude. This is particularly useful on long jet trips, particularly when starting to cross an ocean. When you get settled in steady cruise, you can check the time remaining on the GPS against the time shown by this gauge. If the gauge shows extra time, you are in good shape. If not, watch carefully until a point is reached where you must divert to a landing for fuel. Use extra causion when flying in Real Weather because the winds at cruise altitude can change drastically when crossing oceans. Take all the extra fuel you can carry.
Tom Goodrick
Re: FLYING MY JETS
« Reply #4 on: Dec 13th, 2007, 2:41pm »
Some people wonder where to fly small jets. Here is a real schedule flown by a Beech (Hawker) 400.
SCHEDULE OF USAGE FOR BEECH 400 JET
N101AR NOV 28 TO DEC 9 2007
DATE_____DEPART_____ARRIVE_____TOFF________LAND TIMES
NOV 28___PHX_________LFT________10:11am MT___1:35pm CT LFT is Lafeyette, Louisiana
_________LFT__________PBI_________2:26pm CT____5:07pm ET Phoenix to Palm Beach, Florida
NOV 30___PBI__________SAT________1:01 pm ET____2:39pm CT SAT is San Antonio, Texas
_________SAT__________PHX________3:43pm CT____4:48 pm MT Return to Phoenix, Arizona
DEC 1____PHX_________SDL_________9:41am MT____9:45 am MT position at Scottsdale, AZ
_________SDL__________SNA_________11:05 am MT__11:16am PT to John Wayne, Santa Ana, California
_________SNA__________SDL_________6:28pm PT____8:14pm MT back to Scottsdale, AZ
_________SDL__________PHX_________8:35pm MT____8:39pm MT back to Phoenix
DEC 2___PHX__________SMO_________11:35am MT___11:45am MT to Santa Monica, CA
________SMO__________LAS__________1:34 pm PT____2:22pm PT to Las Vegas, Nevada
________LAS___________PHX_________Huh_____VFR return to Phoenix
DEC 3___PHX__________SDL__________5:50 am MT______position at Scottsdale
_________SDL__________AEG__________6:56am MT_____7:38am MT to Double Eagle at Albuquerque, NM
_________AEG__________IAH_________9:09am MT_____11:43am CT to Houston, TX
_________IAH___________DAL_________5:56pm CT_____6:45pm CT to Dallas, TX
DEC 5___DAL___________SDL_________11:34am CT____12:37pm MT to Scottsdale, AZ
________SDL___________PHX________1:09pm MT_____1:13pm MT to Phoenix
DEC 8___PHX__________TUS________11:32am MT_____11:54an MT to Tuscon, AZ
________TUS__________RNO________1:38pm MT______ 2:14pm PT to Reno/Tahoe Nevada
________RNO_________LAS_________2:41pm PT______4:43pm PT to Las Vegas, NV
DEC 9___LAS_________SMO________3:24pm PT______4:09pm PT to Santa Monica, CA
________SMO________PHX_________4:53pm PT______7:06pm MT back to Phoenix
The aircraft is owned by A&R Aircraft, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Clearly, Phoenix is the home base for the aircraft and crews. There may be two sets of crew.
Below is a schedule for a Falcon 50.
It is N2FQ based at Napa, California. As you can see it ranges from Napa to Mexico, the Caribbean, and Hawaii.
08-Jun-2006 FA50/ Kahului (PHOG) Honolulu Int'l (PHNL) 03:30PM HST 03:49PM HST 0:19
08-Jun-2006 FA50/ Honolulu Int'l (PHNL) Kahului (PHOG) 11:15AM HST 11:33AM HST 0:18
07-Jun-2006 FA50/Q Napa Co (KAPC) Honolulu Int'l (PHNL) 09:57AM PDT 11:30AM HST 4:33
23-May-2006 FA50/Q Los Angeles Int'l (KLAX) Napa Co (KAPC) 12:35PM PDT 01:23PM PDT 0:48
23-May-2006 FA50/U Licenciado Adolfo Lopez Mateos Int'l (MMTO) Los Angeles Int'l (KLAX) 06:02PM GMT 11:39AM PDT n/a
20-May-2006 FA50/G Napa Co (KAPC) Los Cabos Int'l (MMSD) 05:29AM PDT result unknown (?) n/a
13-May-2006 DA50/L Miami Int'l (KMIA) Napa Co (KAPC) 03:37PM EDT 06:36PM PDT 5:59
13-May-2006 FA50/Q Hewanorra Int'l (TLPL) Miami Int'l (KMIA) 03:03PM GMT 02:22PM EDT n/a
06-May-2006 FA50/Q Palm Beach Int'l (KPBI) E T Joshua (TVSV) 08:53AM EDT result unknown (?) n/a
05-May-2006 FA50/Q Napa Co (KAPC) Palm Beach Int'l (KPBI) 08:38AM PDT 04:23PM EDT 4:45
03-May-2006 FA50/Q Yuma Mcas Yuma Int'l (KYUM) Napa Co (KAPC) 04:09PM MST 05:27PM PDT 1:18
02-May-2006 DA50/Q Napa Co (KAPC) Licenciado Adolfo Lopez Mateos Int'l (MMTO) 08:02AM PDT result unknown (?) n/a
22-Apr-2006 FA50/H Yuma Mcas Yuma Int'l (KYUM) Napa Co (KAPC) 02:44PM MST 04:01PM PDT 1:17
It appears to show a change in policy regarding international flights to Mexico. The crew was used to flying direct from Napa to various cities in Mexico. They would simply clear customs at both ends. Then they had to change their flight plane to make a stop at Yuma both on exit from, and entrance to, the US.
« Last Edit: Dec 13th, 2007, 2:54pm by Tom Goodrick »